Exposure Levels to Dust in Grain Storage and Milling among the Selected Mill Workers in Greater Gaborone District, Botswana
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70619/vol5iss4pp17-30711Keywords:
Grains milled, Exposure levels, Factors associated, Safety measuresAbstract
The different processes of grain milling generate dust, which can be inhaled as respirable or inhalable dust, may contain hazardous substances that can cause eye or skin irritation, acute and chronic health effects on the respiratory system, or impaired lung function leading to worker disability. There is currently limited literature on exposure levels to dust among mill workers in Botswana. The study’s aim was to assess the exposure levels to dust in grain storage and milling among mill workers in the Greater Gaborone District. A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted among 176 mill workers in eight (8) grain mills. Data was collected through a modified standardized British Medical Research Council (BMRC)Structured questionnaire, Key Informant Interviews, and an observation checklist. A particulate matter counter, JD3003, was also used to collect dust samples from three fixed points, i.e., milling, packaging, and storage, to measure exposure levels for PM2.5 and PM10. SPSS v29 and Stata 14 were used for data analysis. This study recorded high arithmetic mean dust concentrations of 39.0µg/m3 for PM2.5 and 127.7 µg/m3 for PM10. These concentrations exceeded the World Health Organization Air Quality limits of PM2.5, 5µg/m3, and PM10, 15µg/m3. The highest dust concentrations were recorded in milling sections, followed by packaging areas in all the mills. Prolonged work shifts (> 8 hours) were linked to 18.4% higher PM2.5 and 44.2% higher PM₁₀ dust exposure levels. A proportion of workers presented with chronic respiratory symptoms (39.2%), skin problems or irritation (4.6%), and itching or tearing eyes (8%), indicating health implications of exposure to high grain dust concentrations. Safety training and PPE use were associated with increased exposure to dust. These findings underscore the need to strengthen preventive safety measures and policy enforcement to address non-adherence to safety protocols.
References
Abdulrahman, M. A., Murad, I. S. (2022). Pulmonary Functions and Respiratory Symptoms of Wheat Flour Mill Workers in The Duhok District.
Alemseged, E. A., Takele, A. K., Zele, Y., Abaya, S. W., Kiros, K. G., Mehari, M., ... & Goyteom, M. H. (2019). Assessment of chronic respiratory health symptoms and associated factors among flour mill factory workers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2019: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Asthma and Allergy, 483-492.
Asgedom, A.A. (2023). Dust Exposure and Respiratory Health among Selected Factories in Ethiopia: Existing Evidence, Current Gaps and Future Directions
Blanc, P. D., Annesi- Maesano, I., Balmes, J.R., Cummings, K.J., Fishwick, D., Miedinger, D., Murgia, N., Naidoo, R. N., Reynolds, C.J., Sigsgaard, T., Torén, K., Vinnikov, D., Carrie A. Redlich, C. A. (2019). The Occupational Burden of Nonmalignant Respiratory Diseases.An Official American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society Statement
Choudhury, S.A.R.A., Rayhan, A., Ahmed, S., Chakrabortty, R., Mohammed, A. R., Abdullah, A. M., Paul, S. K., Hasan, A. S (2023). Frequency of respiratory symptoms among rice mill workers in Bangladesh: A cross‐sectional study
Daniel, O.E., Lukuman, B., Chioma, E.S., Hajara, Z., Inalegwu, N. A. (2022). Effects of Dust particles on the human respiratory system among Otupo rice mill workers
Elghazally, S.A., Zayet, H. H., Elkholy, M. M., and Alkarn, A. A. (2023). Assessment of the respiratory health status of workers in four mills of Assiut
Enitan, S.S., Osakue, O.E., Adejumo, E.N., Olusanya, T.O., Ileoma, E.O., Enitan, C.B., Ogbonna, N. I. (2023). Occupational exposure to flour dust among bakery workers: prevalence, potential hazards, and promising interventions
International Labour Organization (2020) Improving Safety and Health in Micro-, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: An overview of initiatives and delivery mechanisms
International Labour Organization (2023). Implementing a safe and healthy working environment: Where are we now?
International Labour Organization (2023). A call for safer and healthier working environments
International Labour Organization, Introduction to the ILO’s Programme: Global Action for Prevention on Occupational Safety and Health. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/how-the-iloworks/WCMS_495278/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 19 March 2023)
Lagiso, Z. A., Mekonnen, W.T., Abaya, S.W., Takele, A.K., and Hailemichael Mulugeta Workneh, H. M. (2020). Chronic respiratory symptoms, lung function, and associated factors among flour mill factory workers in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia: “comparative cross-sectional study.”
Lohani, D., Vinay, D., and Shilla, K. (2020). Occupational and respiratory abnormalities among grain mill workers
Martinelli,A., Salamon,F., Scapellato,M. L., Trevisan, A., Vianello, L., Bizzotto,R.(2020). Occupational Exposure to Flour Dust. Exposure Assessment and Effectiveness of Control
Matosa, M. L., Cardosob, R. T. (2024). Evaluation of occupational exposure to flour dust and additives in a milling industry
Mekonnen, T.H., Dessie, A., and Tesfaye, A. H. (2021). Respiratory symptoms related to flour dust exposure are significantly high among small and medium-scale four mill workers in Ethiopia: a comparative cross-sectional survey
Mishra, J., Verma, K., Mohanty, S.K., Rath, I. (2024). Health Risks and Dust Exposure among Flour Mill Workers in Eastern India: A Comprehensive Study
Mohamad, A.A.A., Anua, S.M., Safuan, S., Md Shakri, S.F. (2020). Exposure to Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in inhalable dust and its respiratory effects among rice millers
Ofentse, G. P. (2022). Evaluation of the prospects of hedging Botswana's maize prices against the Johannesburg Stock Exchange Commodity Market Derivatives
Rashmi, M.R., Devi, L.D., Mary, S. A. (2022). Effectiveness of a Structured Teaching Program on Knowledge regarding Occupational Health Hazards and their Prevention among Flour Mill Workers at selected rural area
Safety and health at the heart of the future of work. Building on 100 years of experience. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-dgreports/%2D%2D-dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_686645.pdf. Accessed 15 Mar 2019. 2019.
Seema, P., Shashi, K.M., & Deepthi, R. (2020). Screening of flour mill workers for respiratory morbidities: A cross-sectional study in rural Bangalore
Siddique, K., Sabri, S.H., Sajjad, S., Nazar, M., Khunsha, I.W., Batool, A., Hussain, S. (2024). Lung Capacity and Respiratory Health in Rice Mill Workers
Ulanga, A. J., Mamuya, S. H., Sakwari, G., & Mlimbila, J. (2021). Respiratory symptoms, lung function, and dust exposure among workers in grain milling industries in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
World Health Organization. Available online: https://www.who.int/news/item/15-03-2016-an-estimated-12-6-million-deathseach-year-are-attributable-to-unhealthy-environments (accessed on 19 March 2023).
World Health Organization. Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health#:~:text=Ambient%20(outdoor)%20air%20pollution%20in,and%20 respiratory%20disease%2C%20and%20cancers (accessed on 19 March 2023)
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Sifelani Malima, Peterson Njogu Warutere, Eliphas Gitonga
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
